CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Ivan Pavlov, 1904): Pavlov discovered this through his salivation experiments on dogs. MECHANISM: An Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS, e.g., food) naturally produces an Unconditioned Response (UCR, e.g., salivation). When a neutral stimulus (bell) is repeatedly PAIRED with the UCS, the neutral stimulus becomes a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) that produces a Conditioned Response (CR, salivation at hearing bell alone). KEY CONCEPTS: (a) Acquisition — learning phase where CS-UCS pairing occurs. (b) Extinction — CR fades when CS is presented without UCS repeatedly. (c) Spontaneous Recovery — extinguished CR reappears after a rest period. (d) Stimulus Generalization — CR occurs to stimuli similar to CS. (e) Stimulus Discrimination — organism learns to respond to CS but not similar stimuli. FOUR TYPES OF CONDITIONING (from REET PQR Q.84): Delayed (CS starts before UCS, overlaps), Trace (CS starts and ENDS before UCS, with gap), Simultaneous (CS and UCS presented together), Backward (UCS presented BEFORE CS — least effective). Educational application: Phobias, emotional responses to school/subjects, attitude formation.

OPERANT CONDITIONING (B.F. Skinner, 1938): Skinner built on Thorndike's work using the 'Skinner Box'. The organism OPERATES on the environment and the CONSEQUENCES determine whether the behaviour is repeated. KEY CONCEPTS: (a) REINFORCEMENT (increases behaviour): Positive reinforcement (adding pleasant stimulus, e.g., praise after good answer), Negative reinforcement (removing aversive stimulus, e.g., removing extra homework when student behaves). (b) PUNISHMENT (decreases behaviour): Positive punishment (adding aversive, e.g., detention), Negative punishment (removing pleasant, e.g., taking away phone). (c) SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: Fixed Ratio (reward after fixed number of responses), Variable Ratio (reward after unpredictable number — most resistant to extinction, e.g., gambling), Fixed Interval (reward after fixed time), Variable Interval (reward after varying time). (d) SHAPING — reinforcing successive approximations of desired behaviour. (e) CHAINING — linking simple behaviours into complex sequences. Skinner's teaching machine and programmed instruction are direct applications.

TRIAL AND ERROR LEARNING / CONNECTIONISM (Edward Thorndike, 1898): Thorndike's 'puzzle box' experiments with cats. The cat made random movements (trial and error) until accidentally pressing the lever (success). With repeated trials, errors decreased and time to escape shortened. This formed stimulus-response (S-R) CONNECTIONS. THREE PRIMARY LAWS: (1) LAW OF READINESS — learning is effective when the organism is ready/prepared to respond. Forced learning when unready causes frustration. (2) LAW OF EXERCISE — connections are strengthened through practice (USE) and weakened through disuse. Sub-laws: Law of Use (practice strengthens), Law of Disuse (lack of practice weakens). (3) LAW OF EFFECT — responses followed by SATISFACTION are strengthened; responses followed by DISCOMFORT are weakened. This is Thorndike's most important law and the precursor to Skinner's reinforcement. Thorndike later modified this: satisfaction strengthens more than discomfort weakens (truncated law of effect). SUBSIDIARY LAWS: Multiple Response, Set/Attitude, Prepotency of Elements, Response by Analogy, Associative Shifting.

INSIGHT LEARNING / GESTALT THEORY (Wolfgang Köhler, 1925): Köhler studied chimpanzees (Sultan) on Tenerife island. The chimps faced problems (bananas hung from ceiling, sticks placed nearby). Instead of random trial-and-error, they SUDDENLY perceived the solution — stacking boxes or connecting sticks to reach bananas. This 'AHA MOMENT' is called INSIGHT. Characteristics: (a) solution is SUDDEN, not gradual. (b) Based on PERCEPTION of the whole situation, not blind trial. (c) Once insight occurs, the solution is TRANSFERABLE to new situations. (d) Requires RESTRUCTURING of the perceptual field. Contrast with Thorndike: Trial-and-error is blind, mechanical, gradual. Insight is intelligent, perceptual, sudden. GESTALT PRINCIPLES: Figure-ground, Proximity, Similarity, Closure, Continuity. Educational implication: present problems as WHOLES, not fragments. Allow students time to perceive relationships.

SOCIAL LEARNING / OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (Albert Bandura, 1961): Bandura argued that learning occurs through OBSERVATION of others (models) without direct reinforcement. His famous BOBO DOLL experiment showed children who observed adults acting aggressively towards a Bobo doll later IMITATED the aggressive behaviour. FOUR PROCESSES (REET asks the exact ORDER): (1) ATTENTION — learner must notice the model's behaviour. Factors: model's attractiveness, similarity, prestige. (2) RETENTION — learner must remember what was observed (mental representation). (3) REPRODUCTION/PRODUCTION — learner must be physically and cognitively capable of reproducing the behaviour. (4) MOTIVATION — learner must have incentive to perform (vicarious reinforcement — seeing the model rewarded increases motivation; vicarious punishment decreases it). KEY CONCEPT: SELF-EFFICACY — one's belief in their ability to succeed. High self-efficacy → more effort, persistence. Bandura later renamed his theory 'Social COGNITIVE Theory' to emphasize mental processes. Educational application: teacher as role model, peer learning, media influence on children.

CONSTRUCTIVISM (Piaget and Vygotsky): Two variants: (a) COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM (Piaget): Learners actively CONSTRUCT knowledge through their own experiences. The teacher is a facilitator, NOT a transmitter. Learning occurs through assimilation (fitting new info into existing schemas) and accommodation (changing schemas for new info). Discovery learning and hands-on activities are central. (b) SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM (Vygotsky): Learning occurs through SOCIAL INTERACTION. Key concept: ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) — the gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance. SCAFFOLDING — temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable other (teacher, peer) that is gradually withdrawn as the learner becomes independent. Language is the primary tool of thought (differs from Piaget who saw language as secondary to cognition). CONTRAST (frequently tested): Piaget = development PRECEDES learning (stage-based), individual discovery. Vygotsky = learning DRIVES development (ZPD-based), social interaction. Both are constructivists but differ on the role of social context.

CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF THEORIES (frequently asked arrange-in-order): Thorndike's Trial and Error (1898) → Pavlov's Classical Conditioning (1904, Nobel Prize) → Watson's Behaviourism (1913) → Köhler's Insight Learning (1925) → Skinner's Operant Conditioning (1938) → Bandura's Social Learning (1961) → Vygotsky's work published in English (1962, though written in 1930s). BLOOM'S TAXONOMY (Benjamin Bloom, 1956): Cognitive domain hierarchy (ascending): Remember → Understand → Apply → Analyse → Evaluate → Create (revised version by Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Original version: Knowledge → Comprehension → Application → Analysis → Synthesis → Evaluation.

REET EXAM TIPS (12-15 questions across papers — this is the HIGHEST frequency topic in Child Development): Must know: (1) Bandura's 4 steps in EXACT ORDER (Attention→Retention→Reproduction→Motivation). (2) Thorndike's 3 laws (Readiness, Exercise, Effect). (3) Pavlov's terminology: UCS, UCR, CS, CR. (4) Skinner: positive/negative reinforcement vs punishment. (5) Piaget vs Vygotsky differences. (6) Chronological order of theorists. TRAPS: 'Thorndike's Law of Effect says punishment is as strong as reward' — FALSE (truncated law: satisfaction strengthens more). 'Insight learning is gradual' — FALSE (sudden). 'In Bandura's model, Motivation comes before Reproduction' — FALSE (Reproduction before Motivation). 'Constructivism means teacher transmits knowledge' — FALSE (learner constructs). 'Vygotsky believed development precedes learning' — FALSE (that's Piaget; Vygotsky said learning drives development).